Political History of Islam
Muhammed
Muhammed was born around 570 AD in Mecca, which at the time was a key site for an annual pagan pilgrimage, during which warring tribes declared a truce. The pagan Kaaba shrine held 360 idols f tribal pagan deities. There were also significant numbers of Jews and Christians in the area. Although a relatively barren area, it lies about 1000km south of the birthplace of western farming civilisation in modern day Iraq, which occurred about 10000 years earlier. Muhammed was orphaned at an early age, raised by his tribe, and became a relatively succesful trader.
Muhammed received his first revelation in 607 and began preaching publicly in 610. He and a small band of followers migrated to Medina in 622 after facing persecution in Mecca. This persecution resulted from muhammed revealing verses that condemn polytheism and idol worship, as well as love of wealth (a significant declaration in a city built on trade). Muhammed's own tribe were the guardians of the pagan Kaaba, so his denunciation of their religion would have been particularly insulting to them, as well as being a risk to their income. An additional story relates that Muhammed recieved verses acknowledging three pagan Goddesses, and that this helped to reconcile him with the Meccans. However, he later recanted them as "satanic" verses. Most orthodox Islamic interpretations reject this authenticity of this particular story. In 619, leadership of Muhammed's own tribe was inherited by a tenacious enemy of Muhammed, and his tribe removed its protection of Muhammed (which took the form of the promise of blood vengence for tribal members). Muhamme dinitially tried to gain protection in Taif, another prominent city.
Muhammed negotiated his way into a position of authority in Medina, which until then had no centralised political authority and was deeply divided. This was based on Muhammed's status as a neutral outsider. They were also jelous of Mecca's religious importance and hoped to gain power over the city with Muhammed's help. Collectively, they created a constitution which effectively created a multi-religious state. The constitution specifically emphasised blood money and ransom payments, enshrined freedom of religious beliefs, and established women as second class citizens who were entirely at the mercy of the tribal group they belonged to. It declared Medina as a sacred place where the blood of people who were party to the treaty may not be spilled. The constitution also compels non-Muslims to participate in Islamic religious wars. In 624, Muhammed proclaimed that Muslims should face Mecca rather than Medina while praying.
Medina was an agricultural oasis. Although Mecca was barren, it had grown into the wealthiest town in the region through trade. In Medina, Muhammed revealed Koranic verses permitting his followers to rob Meccan caravans. They became very successful at this. They also ransomed prisoners captured in ensuing battles with forces sent by Mecca to protect the caravans. Muhammed also killed many prisoners, but generally released the poor ones for no charge. Koranic verses from this period focus on political issues, such as how to divide spoils of war.
Muhammed's success lead to rapid conversions by pagans. Embittered by this, two pagans composed poetry that mocked Muhammed. They were killed by Muslims, with Muhammed's blessing.
In Mecca, Muhammed's attitude towards Christians and Jews was initially very positive, but their unwillingness to convert to Islam soured the relationship. It went rapidly downhill in Medina. Muhammed initially proclaimed several ordinances to win over the numerous and wealthy Jewish population. These were soon rescinded as the Jews insisted on preserving the entire Mosaic law, and did not recognize him as a prophet because he was not of the race of David. There were three large Jewish tribes in Medina when Muhammed arrived. The first to fall victim to Muhammed were the Banu Qaynuqa, who were wealthy artisans and traders with close links to Mecca, and who posed a political threat to Muhammed. Anecdotally, a Banu Qaynuqa goldsmith assaulted a Muslim woman, causing her to be stripped naked. He was killed by a Muslim, which sparked a series of revenge killings. Under the constitution, Muhammed's role was supposedly to resolve this conflict using the tradition of blood money and to protect religious freedom. However, having been strengthened by a recent military victory over Meccan traders, Muhammed sought to consolidate his power. Muhammed gathered the tribe in the market and addressed them as follows:
"O Jews, beware lest God bring on you the like of the retribution which he brought on Quraysh. Accept Islam, for you know that I am a prophet sent by God. You will find this in your scriptures and in God's covenant with you."
The Quraysh were Muhammed's tribe from Mecca, and the retribution is a reference to his recent military victory over them. Here, Muhammed clearly abandons his promises under the constitution of Medina, which was the initial basis of his authority. Muhammed besieged them until they surrendered, then expelled them from Medina. A muslim who argued that they ought be allowed to stay in anticipation of an attack from Mecca has forever been dubbed the leader of the hypocrits. This was also the first time that Muhammed's Islamic state took 20% of the spoils of war.